And Now a Word (or two or three) about Ethics

-Corruption and ethical violations are everywhere (television, radio, newspaper, news)
-Business and technical writers have moral and ethical obligations
-Dorothy A. Winsor showed through her examination that a "history of miscommunication" contributed to the Challenger space shuttle accident
-Business and technical writers must meet the needs of the intended audience as well as adhere to the strictest ethical and legal standards

Communication Failures Contributing to the Challenger Accident: An Example for Technical Communicators by Dorothy A. Winsor

-Various people in the organization knew the accident was possible and how to prevent it yet not everyone in the organization was aware of this

Why wasn't the information communicated to the entire organization?

1) Managers and engineers viewing the same facts from different perspectives
2) The general difficulty of either sending or receiving bad news, particularly when it must be passed to superiors or outsiders

-Knowledge is not just seeing the facts but interpreting them and this will vary with different people's vantage points
-Communication is not shared information but rather shared interpretation
-Managers and engineers have very much the dame background and the same facts but interpret them differently because they take different approaches
-Three organizations involved: NASA, Marshall Space Center, Morton Thiokol International (MTI)
-Information about the solid rocket booster joint that failed slowly moved its way up in NASA
-The three organizations viewed each other as outsiders which was a big problem in communicating the information

Physical Cause of the Accident

-The failure of a rubber seal in the solid rocket booster was the cause of the explosion
-This allowed hot gases to escape and burn a hole in the fuel tank
-Postflight evidence showed that the joint seals were failing to meet design expectations

Early Responses to Bad News: Disbelief and Failure to Send Upward

-When the o-ring problems first came about MTI did not communicate it to Marshall
-When Marshall communicated downward to MTI, they treated this as a serious problem
-Early signs of o-ring problems were not believed by MTI, were accepted at Marshall when they saw it was MTI’s problem, and not sent upward to NASA

Continued Bad News Rejection Despite Contradictory Evidence

-Tests showed that the cold increases o-ring erosion but this risk was viewed as “acceptable” by MTI personnel because they assumed the secondary ring would seal
-MTI’s claim that the secondary o-rings would seal is retaining previous theories in the face of contradictory evidence because the effectiveness of the secondary ring had been in question since 1982
-In July 1985, Lawrence Mulloy, project manager at Marshall said no other flights would take place until the o-ring erosion at the nozzle joint had been fixed or shown not to be a problem
-Marshall seemed to have kept this news to themselves rather than pass it up to NASA

Internal Versus External Communication of Concern From MTI Engineers

-O-ring damage in late June woke up the engineers at MTI
-MTI engineer Roger Boisjoly became more aware of the potential danger and predicted a loss of the contract or flight failure if no solution was found
-Boisjoly’s memo sent to MTI’s vice president of engineering describing that a catastrophe could result
-The memo was marked COMPANY PRIVATE at the top and bottom so he still tried to keep the bad news from outsiders
-Brian Russell, engineer for MTI wrote to Marshall’s Jim Thomas about test results on the effect of cold on the o-rings
-The memo simply communicated the facts
-Frightening facts should have been used in the memo
-Marshall officials did not interpret the facts in the same alarmed manner Boisjoly and Russel did

The Split Between Managers and Engineers

-MTI managers and engineers were disagreeing on the seriousness of the o-ring problem and engineers had a hard time communicating their view upward
-MTI engineers wrote a memo to management saying the o-ring task force was being slowed by administration and that their work was being established for more leisurely long-term development
-The task force was unable to convince Joe Kilminster, MIT’s vice president of Space Programs of the seriousness of the situation
-Marshall challenged MTI’s drawn conclusions
-Every MTI engineer argued against the launch
1) No one at MTI or Marshall wanted to believe the evidence of the o-ring problem
2) When MTI engineers saw that a problem existed, they had difficulty convincing their management
3) Engineers and managers at MTI were reluctant to communicate bad news outside the company

-It is important that engineers feel as free to communicate bad news as well as bad
-Failure to believe bad news can have disastrous consequences

How to Lie with Statistics by Darrell Huff

The sample with the built-in basis:
- A sampling study must use a representative study or a truly random one
- Does every name in the group have an equal chance to be in the sample?
- No statistical conclusion can rise above the quality of the sample it is based upon
The truncated, or gee-whiz, graph:
- Chopping the bottom of a graph to make it more effective
- Makes rises and falls in your graph seem more significant
The souped-up graph:
- Change the proportion between the ordinate and the abscissa
The well-chosen average:
- When giving figures describe if it is a mean or median
- One isn’t better than the other, it is just misleading unless you know what kind of average it is
The insignificant difference or the elusive error:
- Don’t ignore the error in a sampling study
- Unless the difference between the figures is many times greater than the probable error of each, you have only a guess that the one appearing greater really is
The one-dimensional picture:
- Using graphics instead of simple bars can create a more visual effect
The ever-impressive decimal:
- Decimals make your data more precise and sounds as if you know precisely what you are talking about
- Without decimals it just sounds like an approximation
The semiattached figure:
- If you can’t prove what you want to prove, demonstrate something else and pretend they are the same thing
- The worse things get, the better your survey makes them look
The unwarranted assumption, or post hoc rides again:
- Statistics can be used to deceive
- Misleading statistics are not proven but can easy sway a reader’s mind

Determining the Ethics of Style by Dan Jones

What is Ethics?
-The study of right and wrong conduct
-“A set of moral principles or values” or “a theory or system of moral values”
-It is a guiding philosophy

Ethics and Technical Prose
-You must make many ethical decisions concerning what you write
-It’s not always easy to determine which writing decisions are right or wrong, moral or immoral, ethical or unethical

Ethics and the Professions
-Most professions and professional organizations have published ethical guidelines
-Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
-In Computer Ethics, by Tom Forester and Perry Morrison, they list many ethical questions faced by computer professionals:

Is copying software really a form of stealing? What sort of intellectual property rights should software developers have?

Is it OK for computer professionals to make false claims about the capabilities of computers when selling systems or representing computers to the general public?

STC Ethical Guidelines for Technical Communicators

Introduction: We observe the following ethical guidelines in our professional activities to help us maintain ethical practices

Legality: we observe the laws and regulations governing our professional activities in the workplace, we meet the terms and obligations of contracts

Honesty: provide truthful and accurate communications, before using another person’s work we obtain permission, advertize our services truthfully

Confidentiality : release business-sensitive information only with their consent or when legally required

Quality: we fulfill our negotiated roles in a timely and responsible manner and meet the stated expectations

Fairness: respect cultural variety and other aspects of diversity in our clients, employers, and audiences, avoid conflicts of interest in the fulfillment of our responsibilities and activities

Professionalism: provide candid evaluations of communication products and services, advance the technical communication profession through our integrity, standards, and performance
-These codes of conduct encourage members of a profession to act ethically even in the most difficult of circumstances

Legal and Ethical Issues in Editing by Carolyn D. Rude
-Codes of ethics protect the good of a society as well as protect individual rights
-They are less formal than laws but aim for the same goal

Legal issues in Editing
-Editors share responsibility with writers, researchers, and managers for protecting documents legally
-Editors verify that permissions to reprint portions of other people’s publications are obtained

Intellectual Property: Copyright, Trademarks, Patents, Trade Secrets
-Intellectual property includes original works of fiction, or nonfiction, artwork and photographs, recording, computer programs, and any other expression that is fixed in some form – printed, recorded, or posted on the web
-They are protected by copyright law
-The owner has the right to determine if the work may be reproduced or used

Copyright
-Protects authors of “original works of authorship”
-Gives the owner the right to reproduce and distribute the work

Ownership
-If the author wrote to meet responsibilities of employment, the employer owns the copyright
-Works by the U.S. government are not eligible for copyright protection, they are in the “public domain”
-Collections that contain multiple authors are generally protected by a single copyright but may be copyrighted individually

Copyright Notice, Registration, and Deposit
-Registration with the Copyright Office gives maximum legal protection
-A published work should include a notice of copyright
-Copyrightable work published in the United States is subject to mandatory deposit or use in the Library of Congress

International Copyright Protection
-Copyright in one country does not automatically extend to another
-It depends on the laws of that country
-Some countries offer little or no copyright protection for work published in other countries

Permissions and “Fair Use”
-Permission must be obtained to reproduce sections of some else’s work
-The permission ought to exist in writing
-If permission is denied, material may not be used

A request for permission should include the following:
- Title, author, and edition of the materials to be reprinted
- Exact material to be used: include page numbers and/or a photocopy
- How it will be used: nature of the document in which it will be reprinted, author, intended audience, publisher, where the material will appear

Copyright and Online Publication
-Material on the web and even e-mail messages are protected by the same copyright laws that protect print, especially when the information has commercial value
-Distributing something you found on the web to make money or to people who would otherwise read it on the web and see the advertisements that accompany it, or copy the words without citation is violating copyright law

Trademarks, Patents, and Trade Secrets
-Trademarks are brand names, phrases, graphics, or logos that identify products
-If marks are registered with the PTO (Patent and Trade Office) no one else can use those marks

Product Safety and Liability
-companies and individuals must assume responsibility for safety of the products as they are used or even misused by customers
-The products themselves must be designed to be as safe as possible

Libel, Fraud, and Misrepresentation
-Libel is a statement that shames or lowers the public reputation of an identifiable person
-Fraud and misrepresentation deceive the public
-Misrepresentation may occur in labeling products or making claims about them

Other Written Materials for a Job Search

The Basics of a Cover Letter by Steven Graber

-Effective cover letters attract an employer’s attention
-Format and content of a cover letter are just as important as with a resume

FORMAT
-A potential employer has already assessed you just by the overall appearance of your cover letter
-You must present your credentials in an effective way

The Parts of a Letter
-Print on high quality paper
-Use business style of personal style
-The elements of the letter (return address, salutation, body, etc.) begin at the left margin in the business style and they begin at the centerline in the personal style
-Return address should appear at the top margin without your name
-Don’t use abbreviations
-Make sure contact information is on both the cover letter and resume in case they get separated
-Don’t abbreviate the date
-In the address use the addressee’s full name and give the person’s full title, company’s name, and the company’s address
-Salutation should be two lines beneath the company’s address
-Should be “Dear Mr.” or “Dear Ms.” Followed by the individual’s last name and a colon
-Never use a first name in the salutation
-Three or four paragraphs on one page, any longer and it may not be read
-Enclosure lines are primarily used in a formal or official correspondence, it’s not necessary to include in a cover letter
-Use standard 81/2 by 11 inch paper
-Use quality paper and use the same paper for your resume and cover letter
-Do not use stationary paper with pictures on it
-Mail cover letter and resume in a standard business-sized envelope

CONTENT

Personalize Each Letter
-If you are not responding to a specific contact name send it to the most appropriate person, the more influential the better
-Try to contact the head of the department
-Use your contact’s name and title on both the cover letter and envelope

Mapping It Out

-Cover letter should not be longer than 3 or 4 paragraphs
-Don’t repeat what’s in the resume
-Give an overview of your capabilities
-Show interest in the company
First Paragraph
-State the position you are applying for
-Name your source if responding to an ad or listing

Second Paragraph
-What can you contribute to the company?
-Don’t talk about what you can’t do and keep it brief

Third Paragraph
-Show how you exceed the requirements
-List any accomplishments, awards, or when you went above the call of duty

Fourth Paragraph
-Close by saying you look forward to hearing from them and thank them for their consideration
-Don’t ask for an interview

Complimentary Close
-Two lines beneath the body of the letter
-“Sincerely” and three lines underneath put your full name as it appears on the resume
-Sign the letter

TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL COVER LETTERS

What Writing Style is Appropriate?

-Keep your style clear, objective, and persuasive instead of narrative

Tone: Reserved Confidence is Always in Style

-Display confidence in your abilities
-Sell your qualifications like you would in an interview
-Sound enthusiastic but don’t overdue it

Emphasize Concrete Examples

-Your cover letter should emphasize your most significant accomplishments
-Avoid using “etc.”

Use Powerful Language

-Your language should be easy to understand
-Get your message across using the fewest words possible
-Use simple, common language and avoid abbreviations


Avoid Catchphrases

-List actual projects and goals instead of general phrases
-Concrete experiences are more valuable than these vague phrases

Mention Personal Preferences?

-Refrain from offering salary information unless the advertisement you are responding to requires it
-If you must give salary requirements use a range instead of a number
-Indicate a willingness to relocate if applying out of state

Proof with Care

-Proofread your letter as carefully as possible
-Read your letter aloud to someone and have them read it to you
-Mistakes on your resume or cover letter could remove you from consideration

COVER LETTER BLUNDERS TO AVOID

Unrelated Career Goals

-Tailor your cover letter to the position you’re applying for
-Express a genuine interest in the position

Comparisons and Clichés

-These expressions detract from the purpose of your letter
Examples:
“I am as smart as a whip”
“Team work is my middle name”

Wasted Space

-Cover letters are generally four paragraphs long
-Include only those skills and experiences applicable to the field you are applying to
-Any other information will weaken your case

Form Letters

-Mass mailings where you send a form letter to a large number of employees is not recommended
-Every cover letter should demonstrate your commitment to a specific industry and familiarity with each employer


Inappropriate Stationery

-White and ivory colored paper are acceptable
-Don’t rely on graphics to improve your cover letter

“Amusing” Anecdotes

-When writing, remain polite and professional
-You wouldn’t joke with him or her until you determined it was appropriate

Erroneous Company Information

-Verify the accuracy of any company information you mention in your cover letter
-Broad statements like “I know something about your company,” or “I am familiar with your products,” indicates that you haven’t done your homework

Desperation

-Sound determined, not desperate
-Do not use statements like these: “Please call today! I’ll be waiting by the phone”
“I am very badly in need of money”

Personal Photos

-It is inappropriate to send a photograph of yourself unless you are pursuing a job in modeling, acting, or performing acts

Confessed Shortcomings

-Do not call attention to your weaknesses in your cover letter
-This will make the letter emphasize your flaws instead of your strengths

Misrepresentation

-Never misrepresent yourself, stick to the facts
-Don’t exaggerate when selling your skills but don’t hold back either

Demanding Statements

-Your letter should demonstrate what you can do for an employer
-Do not include personal preferences or demands in your letter

Missing Resume

-Don’t forget to enclose all the materials you refer to in your cover letter
-Employers will just move on to the next application
Personal Information

-Do not include your age, health, physical characteristics, marital status, race, religion, or any other personal information
-List your interests and hobbies only if they are relevant to the type of job your applying for
-When in doubt leave it out

Choice of Pronouns

-Writing in first person is preferable
-Employers find the third person approach disconcerting

Tone Trouble

-Tone problems can be subtle and hard to detect
-Have someone else review your letter
-If the wording is questionable rewrite the letter
-Try to sound genuine

Gimmicks

-No matter how creative you get, the majority of employers will be more impressed with a simple, well crafted letter
-Hiring decisions are based on qualifications, not gimmicks

Typographical Errors

-A hiring manager will reject any letter that contains errors
Some common technical mistakes:
-Misspelling the hiring contact’s name or title
-Forgetting to change the name of the organization you’re applying to
-Indicating application for one position and mentioning a different position in the body of the letter

Messy Corrections

-If you forget to include something in your letter, retype it
-Including a supplementary note will be viewed as unprofessional
-Avoid using correction fluid or penning in any corrections

Omitted Signature

-Don’t forget to sign your name neatly in blue or black ink
-Don’t use script font or a draw program on your word processor, actually sign it

COVER LETTERS FOR SPECIAL SITUATIONS

-The key to improving your cover letter in special situations is to emphasize your strengths
-If you’re an older candidate, emphasize the depth of your experience

RESPONSE TO A “BLIND” ADVERTISEMENT

-“Blind” advertisements do not list employer information and direct responses to a post office box rather than a company’s address
-This letter should sharply define your knowledge of the industry
-Target everything in your response but avoid longwinded passages

COLD LETTERS

-With a “cold” cover letter you can directly contact potential employers without a referral or previous correspondence
-Job-seekers most commonly use this type of letter to advertise their availability to hiring managers or personnel departments

BROADCAST LETTERS

-Well-qualified candidates can advertise their availability to top-level professionals in a particular field
-Its tone should reflect the candidate’s experience, knowledge, and confidence in his or her capabilities
-Broadcast letters are not recommended for those candidates conducting widespread job searches

LETTER TO AN EMPLOYMENT AGENCY

-Many candidates rely on the help of employment agencies when searching for a job
-Letters sent to an agency should focus on who you are, type of position, what specific industry, and your strongest skills related to that field.

LETTER TO AN EXECUTIVE SEARCH FIRM

-A well-crafted cover letter can alert an otherwise unknowing recruiter to your availability
-Highlight your most impressive accomplishments and attributes and briefly summarize all relevant experience

NETWORKING LETTERS

-Refers to a third-party industry contact to garner the reader’s attention and induce him or her to assist you in your job search
-Word your letter in a businesslike manner
-If your letter is politely persuasive, people will be interested in talking to you

THANK YOU LETTERS

-It is acceptable to handwrite your thank you letter on a generic blank note card
-Make sure it is neat and legible
-Keep the letters short, proofread, and send them promptly

Your Resume on the Internet by Margaret Riley Dikel and Frances E. Roehm

-Compared to networking, researching and targeting employers, or reviewing job leads, distributing a resume is not very effective
-A great resume can help you win the position you want and a bad one will knock you out of consideration

THE MYTH ABOUT THE INTERNET RESUME

-You need only one resume but have it in several formats

A designed or hard-copy version
A scannable version
A plain-text version
An e-mail version
-You may want to consider an HTML version of your resume that can be posted on a website
-The main problem with these resumes is that they include too much information
-Keep it entirely professional

RULES FOR RESPONDING ONLINE

-The fastest way to respond to internet job listings is by e-mailing your cover letter and resume
-Format your resume correctly for e-mail
-Send your resume in the body of the e-mail message and not as an attachment so the reader doesn’t have to find it and open it
-Always include a cover letter and make sure it is specific the person organization you are contacting and make it interesting
-Use the advertised job title or job code in the subject line of your e-mail message
-Read the application instructions included in the job announcement and follow them exactly.

E-RESUMES ARE NOT JUST FOR E-MAIL

-Good for all the places online where you can post your resume
-Expert Susan Ireland doesn’t recommend using these forms for the following reasons:
It’s very easy to have typos if you type directly into the site’s form
The form may force you to use a resume format you don’t like
You cannot easily save your resume for other uses because the resume bank is on a website
-The best way to post your resume online is to copy and paste it from a prepared copy you have already formatted

PREPARING A PERFECT PLAIN-TEXT RESUME

-Anyone creating a resume should take the extra time to generate a plain-text version for posting online

WHERE, OH, WHERE SHOULD THAT RESUME GO?

-You don’t want to post your resume on every possible site because recruiters notice this and will start to ignore you and refuse any consideration
-Post it on only one or two of the large online databases, preferably ones attached to popular job sites
-Post it on one or two targeted resume databases specific to your industry, occupational group, or geographic location.

Protect Yourself Online

-Carefully evaluate the job sites you use because you may risk a total loss of privacy

1. Does the site have a comprehensive privacy policy?
2. Do you have to register a profile or resume before you can search through the jobs?
3. Are most of the jobs posted by employers or by agencies acting on behalf of employers?
4. Can you set up one or more “e-mail agents” that will send matching jobs to you when you are not at the site?
5. Who has access to the database of resumes?
6. Can you limit access to your personal contact information?
7. Can you store more than one version of your resume so that you can customize it for different types of opportunities?
8. Will you be able to edit your resume once you have posted it?
9. Will you be able to delete your resume after you have found a job?

Before You Post, Something to Think About

Do you want your resume public? No matter where you post it, consider your resume to be public
Are you prepared for the consequences should an electronic resume come back to haunt you? Some people find there resumes posted in places they never put them.

RESUME BLASTERS: THE WAVE OF THE FUTURE OR A NEW FORM OF SPAM

-Wide distribution or your resume by resume “broadcasters” gives you no control of where your resume could end up
-A lot of people that end up on the list for these services never requested they be on it
-Resumes get sent out without any regard as to whether or not the employer requested it

Resumes and Other Written Materials for a Job Search

Resumes and Other Written Materials for a Job Search

-There is no one way to write a resume or cover letter
-In the end, let common sense be your ultimate guide
-Consider the person who will be reading your resume

Writing Resumes and Letters in the Language of Employers by John L. Munschauer

-Your resume should display to the employer, “What can the candidate do for us?”

Why Use a Resume?
-To get a job or interview
-Should never be longer than a page and your experience should be listed chronologically
-Remember that the main purpose is to send a message and don’t get caught up in making it pretty and eye catching
-Imagine yourself as the employer looking at yourself seeing what you have to offer
-Don’t confuse customers by flaunting things that don’t speak to their needs

Giving your Message
-Employment “I want”
-Employer “I need”
-Perfect resumes that arrive in the mail won’t even be read if the cover letter doesn’t impress the employer
-Refrain from “I have done this...” and “I have done that”
-The example letter proved to the employer that the writer was a problem solver

The Importance of Knowing What the Job Is All About
-Understand there is a need for people who can get things done
-When employers advertise and list the qualifications they seek, the best way to respond is to send a resume outlining the qualifications.

Letters of Application
-To figure out how to make the letter of application more effective imagine being on the receiving end
-Cute tricks and cleverness don’t work at big corporations

Good letters contain:
Business letter appearance – neat and printed on 8 1/2” X 11” paper
They were succinct
No misspellings or grammatical letters
-All good letters have one thing in common – they’re simple

The most effective letters reviewed followed a similar pattern:
The first paragraph stated who the writer was and what he wanted
The second paragraph indicated the purpose of the letter and information relative to the qualifications
Final paragraph suggested a course of action

Hard Work and Attention to Detail Make for a Good Letter
-Most people won’t write effective letters so see it as a chance to set yourself apart
-Write it and rewrite it
-Get a teacher or someone in the word business to proofread your letter

Don’t Delegate the Job of Letter Writing
-The thought process used in writing letters and resumes is more important than style
-Don’t delegate your thinking to someone else or the letter will sound phony
-Think about the employer’s needs and then think about what you offer and relate that to what you would like to do
-Prepare a resume even if you don’t use it – it is valuable in preparation

Resume Preparation
-The resume should look sufficiently attractive to get an employer to read it
-These resumes get about a 20 second scan to see what they’re worth

Nancy Jones - A Good Resume Made Better
-Do not sound long winded
-Offer information and skills relative to the job objective
-List all your credentials that testify your ability to do the work

Janet Smith – The Proper Use of Headlines
-A resume should be able to be skimmed to pick up important information
-Headlines can help the reader select specific things of interest
-When planning headlines ask yourself, “What words will catch the reader’s eye?” and “Does this say something to the employer?”

Mark Meyers – The Functional Resume
-Creating a resume based on functions
-Wrote his resume in a conventional form in which he listed education then experiences in chronological order and finally his activities and interest
-A better way to do this is to feature the functions of the job he wanted and then describe things he has done that relates to it

Preparing a Resume for a Specific Job
-Try to tie in as many experiences as possible that correlate with the job description
-In a functional resume, different functions can be highlighted and specific experiences can be rearranged under different headings to make it more effective

Bruce Gregory Robertson – A Resume Reflecting an Active Mind and Body
-Employers look for candidates that are able to learn and not so much for what they know
-List traits about yourself that show you could move up in the company


Michelle Trio – The Curriculum Vitae
-Resume for academic positions – does not need a statement of goals or interest
-List many achievements
-In an academic resume, not only does the employer look at the person’s publications and research they are also interested in the prestige that person can bring to the department

The Job Objective
-A resume should open with an objective but it should be stated a certain way
-Use the headline CAREER INTEREST
-The employer shouldn’t have to study the resume to know what you want

One Page or Two
-Better to keep it at one page but length depends on the message
-A resume needs white space and headings that stand out so don’t cram everything in one page if it’s going to appear very crowded and hard to read

Additional Advice About Resumes
-Get your friends to critique your resume especially if they are in a related job field
-Look at the resume from a few feet back and check its appearance, does it look neat? It is easy to read?
-Ask your critics, “What message to you get about me?”